Global Overview
General Note
The size and scope of this project ended up spanning such a large book that I was unable to sell it as Paperback and Hardback covers. Because of that, I decided to break down this “Project” or “Work” or whatever you’d like to call it. So instead of one massive book, it’ll be split into separate books (Book 1, book 2 and so forth) then the price will be adjusted accordingly so the total cost of all the books together, will be equivalent to what the full book was previously.
Another “Positive” about doing it this way, means if I ever decide to expand this project into a lot of other types of books along a similar premise, I can always release them as other books in the same series and it’ll be easier to manage and maintain.
So for now I have taken all the books associated with this project, and split up the table of contents, and broken them down into separate “books” each one will have the associated books updated on the Amazon Description page, but it’ll also allow me to create them all as Ebook, Paperback and Hardback. Later on I may decide to add “more” books incorporating other Apocrypha that are not necessarily specifically “christian” related. Depending on how this project expands, and if time allows.
Preface:
I am a Christian, and I’ve read the Bible. I’ve always had an interest in the Apocrypha, but I found it overwhelming to identify what to read and where to find them. Even though they are all in the public domain, they are scattered all over the Internet in a variety of places.
On a basic level there are a few dozen books, but on a deeper dive there are over fifty that were recovered from the original Dead Sea Scrolls. I’ve spent the time to gather everything together in one place, where you’ll never have to run all over the Internet researching and finding them again.
A lot of these books were ported in from the Internet. I tried to make sure each one was in public domain, and the ones that were not, I translated myself. If you see something in here that is NOT in the public domain, and I have it in here by mistake, please let me know and I’ll fix it.
Please see all the following notes before continuing:
As you proceed, please keep the following things in mind.
1. At the top of each book, in the information section, I’ve put a field called “Status”. If the Status is Public Domain it means what I copied and put in my book, was from public domain. If I am mistaken about any of those, let me know. The ones that say “My Translation” are ones that I translated myself using a combination of translation technology, and human editing. They may not be perfect but I did the best I could. All the ones I translated myself have “My Translation” beside each book name below, and it says it in the status of each one as well.
2. The formatting for some of the books may change quite a bit between the various books. Porting these over from various sources into one place was already difficult, trying to get the exact formatting for all of them to be the same was almost impossible. So please note the parts of the book that incorporate the old texts, the formatting can be sporadic and at times unexpected, so please keep that in mind as you read through them.
3. There is some overlapping. At times you may notice some texts are part of a bigger texts, and in those cases both sets are included. I did this for completion sake.
4. Note: I spent a great deal of time working on this book, which is an experimental project for me. It was a great deal of time pulling together all of these pieces into one place, some I had to translate and/or create myself using a combination of AI translation, and paid human reviewers to edit it. It was a great deal of time and money involved in this project. If the project takes off and proves to be successful (and worth the time I put in) then I do have ideas for expansions on this project later on down the road. One idea is to release new versions of the book every once in awhile as separate projects, each one adding more and more books as well. Another idea I have is to translate this entire book itself (and all associated works) into various languages (Spanish, French, Japanese, Chinese and so forth.). All this depends on how this one goes. Another idea is to compile a similar set of writings for other cultures. Perhaps one for ancient greece, ancient norse, and so forth. Again, time will tell depending on the success of this and other related projects.
NOTE: This was so big I could not make Paperback and Hardback versions of this, so I decided to break it down into specific books and refine it to an extent. It’s all part of a bigger work but broken down into smaller books. Each book will have the “global overview” that is the same, and then the “book overview’ Which is basically the table of contents for that specific book.
Book Overview
“A Historical Dive” is the first section, right before the first book, and covers the vast history regarding the Dead Sea Scrolls, and all the various other things introduced within this book.
Catholic Tradition (Deuterocanonical Books)
Overview:
The Catholic Tradition encompasses the Deuterocanonical Books, which are included in the Old Testament of Catholic Bibles but excluded from the Jewish Tanakh and Protestant Bibles. These texts are part of the Septuagint (the Greek translation of Hebrew scriptures), used by early Christians as their primary Bible. These books were affirmed as canonical by the Council of Trent (1545–1563) in response to the Protestant Reformation.
The Deuterocanonical Books span various genres, including historical narratives, wisdom literature, prayers, and expansions of canonical texts. They provide a deeper understanding of Jewish life, theology, and culture during the intertestamental period (circa 400 BCE–1 CE). Themes of divine providence, wisdom, repentance, and resistance to persecution are prevalent.
Significance:
• These texts bridge the gap between the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament, offering theological and cultural context for early Christian beliefs.
• They include additions to Hebrew Bible stories, emphasizing divine intervention and moral lessons.
• Many of these books influenced early Christian thought and are quoted or alluded to in the New Testament.
List of Books:
1. The Book of Tobit
2. The Book of Judith
3. The Rest of the Chapters of the Book of Esther
4. The Wisdom of Solomon
5. The Wisdom of Jesus, the Son of Sirach (Ecclesiasticus)
6. The Book of Baruch
• This book is independent and includes general themes of repentance, hope, and God's mercy.
7. The Epistle of Jeremy (Letter of Jeremiah)
• Often included as Chapter 6 of Baruch in Catholic Bibles but considered a separate text in some traditions.
8. The Song of the Three Holy Children (Addition to Daniel)
9. The Prayer of Azariah (Addition to Daniel)
10. The History of Susanna (Addition to Daniel)
11. The History of the Destruction of Bel and the Dragon (Addition to Daniel)
12. The Prayer of Manassas, King of Judah
13. The First Book of Maccabees
14. The Second Book of Maccabees
A Historical Dive
The History of the Dead Sea Scrolls
Discovery and Early Exploration
The Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered between 1946 and 1956 in the Qumran Caves near the Dead Sea, in what is now the West Bank. The initial discovery was made by a Bedouin shepherd searching for a lost goat. He stumbled upon a series of clay jars in a cave, which contained scrolls wrapped in linen. These initial manuscripts, later identified as part of the Dead Sea Scrolls, sparked a massive archaeological and scholarly investigation that would span decades.
The region’s instability during the mid-20th century delayed a systematic exploration of the caves. However, once the discovery's significance was realized, scholars and archaeologists worked rapidly to locate and catalog additional manuscripts. In total, fragments from over 900 manuscripts were recovered from 11 caves. These texts are considered one of the most significant archaeological finds of the 20th century.
Content of the Scrolls
The scrolls represent a diverse collection of Jewish texts dating from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE. They include:
1. Biblical Texts: Approximately 40% of the scrolls are copies of books from the Hebrew Bible, including parts of every book except Esther. These texts provide some of the earliest-known versions of the Old Testament.
2. Apocryphal and Pseudepigraphal Texts: About 30% of the scrolls comprise works that were not included in the Hebrew Bible but were popular in Second Temple Judaism. This includes books like 1 Enoch, Jubilees, and the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs.
3. Sectarian Texts: The remaining scrolls pertain to the religious practices, community rules, and eschatological beliefs of the group believed to have authored them, often identified as the Essenes. Examples include the Community Rule, the War Scroll, and the Thanksgiving Hymns.
Historical Context and Origins
The scrolls are widely believed to have been produced by a Jewish sect, possibly the Essenes, who lived in the Qumran settlement near the caves. This sect, characterized by a strict adherence to the Torah and an apocalyptic worldview, likely viewed itself as a community of the righteous, separated from the corruption of the Jerusalem priesthood.
The Qumran community existed during the Second Temple Period, a time of significant political and religious upheaval in Jewish history. The scrolls reflect the theological diversity and sectarian conflicts of this era, shedding light on the complex dynamics of Judaism before the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE.
Preservation and Storage
The scrolls were stored in clay jars, which were sealed to protect them from the arid desert environment. This preservation method, combined with the region’s dry climate, allowed the scrolls to survive for over two millennia. However, many of the scrolls are fragmentary, with some documents represented by thousands of tiny pieces, necessitating painstaking reconstruction.
Scholarly Study and Controversies
The scrolls' publication history is marked by decades of delays and controversies. After their initial discovery, many scrolls were acquired by scholars and institutions, including the Rockefeller Museum in Jerusalem. The 1950s and 1960s saw limited publication of the texts, with access restricted to a small group of scholars. This exclusivity led to accusations of academic gatekeeping, culminating in the release of the full corpus in the 1990s.
Since then, advances in technology, including infrared imaging and DNA analysis of the parchment, have facilitated new discoveries about the scrolls’ composition and origins. Scholars continue to debate their authorship, the nature of the Qumran community, and the scrolls' relationship to early Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism.
Significance of the Dead Sea Scrolls
1. Textual Variance: The scrolls reveal variations in the biblical text, demonstrating that the Hebrew Bible was not fully standardized during the Second Temple Period.
2. Historical Insight: They provide a window into the beliefs, practices, and conflicts of Jewish communities during a critical period in Jewish and Christian history.
3. Apocryphal Literature: The inclusion of texts like 1 Enoch and Jubilees highlights the diversity of Jewish thought and the importance of these works in shaping early Jewish and Christian theology.
Current Preservation and Display
Today, the scrolls are housed in institutions such as the Israel Museum’s Shrine of the Book in Jerusalem. Ongoing efforts to digitize and preserve the scrolls ensure their accessibility for future generations. High-resolution scans have been made available online, enabling worldwide study.
The Role of the Essenes
Who Were the Essenes?
The Essenes were a Jewish sect active during the Second Temple Period (circa 2nd century BCE to 1st century CE). They are often identified as the likely authors and custodians of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Historical accounts, particularly from the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus, as well as Philo of Alexandria and Pliny the Elder, describe the Essenes as a devout, ascetic group that rejected the corruption of the Temple priesthood and sought a purer form of worship.
Connection to the Qumran Community
The settlement at Qumran is widely believed to have been an Essene community due to parallels between its archaeological remains and the content of the sectarian texts in the scrolls. For example:
• The Community Rule outlines strict communal regulations, consistent with Josephus’s descriptions of Essene life.
• The War Scroll reflects apocalyptic beliefs attributed to the Essenes, including their expectation of a final battle between the "Sons of Light" and the "Sons of Darkness."
Theological Beliefs
The Essenes emphasized:
• Ritual Purity: They practiced regular immersion in water for purification.
• Strict Observance of the Torah: They adhered to a rigid interpretation of Jewish law, often stricter than that of mainstream Judaism.
• Messianic Expectations: Their writings reflect belief in two messiahs—one priestly and one kingly—who would lead Israel in the end times.
Decline of the Essenes
The Essenes likely dissolved after the Roman destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE and the subsequent Jewish revolts. However, their influence persisted in early Jewish mysticism and potentially in early Christianity, as some scholars note thematic overlaps between Essene texts and the teachings of John the Baptist and Jesus.
Technological Advances in Studying the Scrolls
Infrared Imaging
Many fragments of the scrolls were unreadable due to their age and the effects of time. Infrared imaging, introduced in the mid-20th century, allowed scholars to reveal faded text on charred or damaged parchment. This technology continues to evolve, with hyperspectral imaging now being used for even greater clarity.
Digital Reconstruction
Advancements in computer algorithms have facilitated the digital reconstruction of fragmented texts. By analyzing the shapes, sizes, and textures of individual pieces, researchers have been able to piece together scrolls that were previously indecipherable.
DNA Analysis
Scientists have used DNA analysis to identify the animal sources of the parchment, determining that most scrolls were made from goat or sheep skins. This analysis has helped confirm which fragments belong to the same manuscript, resolving disputes about the origins of specific pieces.
3D Scanning and Preservation
High-resolution 3D scanning has been employed to create digital replicas of the scrolls. These replicas allow scholars to examine the texts in unprecedented detail, preserving the originals from further handling.
Preservation and Restoration
Initial Preservation
When the scrolls were first discovered, they were stored in relatively stable conditions in the caves, protected from direct sunlight and moisture. The jars and linen wrappings also shielded them from external elements.
Post-Discovery Challenges
Once removed from their original environment, the scrolls faced new threats:
• Fragmentation: Mishandling and environmental exposure caused further deterioration of many fragments.
• Improper Storage: In the early years, some scrolls were kept in poorly controlled environments, accelerating their decay.
Modern Preservation Efforts
Today, preservation involves:
• Climate-Controlled Storage: Scrolls are kept in environments with strictly regulated temperature, humidity, and lighting.
• Non-Invasive Handling: Modern techniques ensure that the fragile fragments are minimally disturbed during study.
• Digital Archiving: The Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library, launched in 2012, provides open access to high-resolution images, reducing the need to physically handle the originals.
Controversies Surrounding the Dead Sea Scrolls
Access and Ownership
For decades, access to the scrolls was restricted to a small group of scholars, leading to allegations of academic elitism. The eventual publication of the entire corpus in the 1990s quelled much of this criticism but left a legacy of mistrust.
Authorship Debates
While the Essenes are the primary candidates for the scrolls' authorship, alternative theories suggest involvement by:
• Sadducees: Based on some sectarian texts that align with their theological stances.
• Pharisees: Although less likely, some scholars argue for their potential influence.
• Zadokite Priests: Associated with a particular branch of Second Temple Judaism.
Religious Implications
The scrolls challenge traditional views of biblical canon formation and early Jewish theology. Their depiction of a pluralistic Judaism has implications for both Jewish and Christian historical narratives.
Additional Insights
Cultural and Linguistic Importance
The scrolls are written primarily in Hebrew, Aramaic, and a few in Greek. Their language and style offer valuable insights into the evolution of Biblical Hebrew and the transition to Rabbinic Judaism.
Archaeological Significance
The Qumran site itself provides a wealth of information about the daily life of its inhabitants. Excavations have uncovered:
• Mikva'ot (Ritual Baths): Indicating the community's emphasis on ritual purity.
• Pottery and Tools: Suggesting a self-sufficient lifestyle.
• A Communal Dining Area: Supporting the idea of shared meals, as described in the scrolls.
Impact on Biblical Studies
1. Canon Formation: The scrolls illuminate the fluidity of the biblical canon during the Second Temple Period.
2. Textual Criticism: By comparing Qumran texts to later versions of the Hebrew Bible, scholars can trace the development of biblical texts over centuries.
3. Second Temple Judaism: The scrolls highlight the diversity of Jewish thought and practice during this era.
The Relationship Between the Scrolls and Early Christianity
Shared Themes and Theology
The Dead Sea Scrolls and early Christian texts share significant thematic and theological parallels, suggesting potential connections or shared influences:
1. Apocalyptic Worldview: Both traditions emphasize an impending end of the world, divine judgment, and the ultimate triumph of good over evil. The War Scroll's "Sons of Light" versus "Sons of Darkness" mirrors the dualistic themes found in early Christian texts.
2. Messianic Expectations: The scrolls mention two messiahs—one priestly and one kingly—while early Christianity centers on the singular messianic figure of Jesus. However, the focus on eschatological deliverance resonates in both traditions.
3. Baptism and Ritual Purity: The Essene practice of frequent ritual immersion in water has been compared to John the Baptist’s emphasis on baptism as a symbol of repentance and purification.
4. Communal Living: The communal lifestyle described in the scrolls, including shared meals and possessions, reflects the practices of some early Christian communities.
Differences Between the Traditions
Despite these parallels, there are notable distinctions:
• Jesus as Messiah: The Essenes anticipated a messiah but did not identify Jesus as such, as their writings precede or run parallel to his ministry.
• Inclusivity: While the Qumran community emphasized strict separation from outsiders, early Christianity expanded to include Gentiles.
Influence on the New Testament
Some scholars argue that phrases and ideas in the New Testament echo language found in the scrolls. For instance:
• The “Teacher of Righteousness” mentioned in the scrolls has been compared (albeit speculatively) to figures like Jesus or John the Baptist.
• The Beatitudes in the Gospel of Matthew share a thematic resemblance to certain hymns and blessings found in the Qumran texts.
Unresolved Questions
While the scrolls illuminate aspects of Second Temple Judaism that influenced early Christianity, direct connections remain speculative. They reflect the diversity of Jewish thought during the time when Christianity emerged.
Political Context of the Scrolls
The Second Temple Period
The Dead Sea Scrolls were written during a tumultuous era in Jewish history marked by:
1. Hellenistic Influence: Following Alexander the Great’s conquests, Jewish society grappled with the influence of Greek culture and governance.
2. Maccabean Revolt: The rebellion against Seleucid rule (167–160 BCE) and the establishment of the Hasmonean dynasty deeply influenced Jewish religious and political life.
3. Roman Occupation: Rome’s control over Judea (beginning in 63 BCE) brought further instability and tensions, culminating in the Jewish revolts of 66–70 CE and 132–135 CE.
Sectarian Conflicts
The scrolls reflect the internal divisions within Judaism during this period:
• Priestly Disputes: The Qumran community opposed the Temple leadership in Jerusalem, accusing them of corruption and illegitimacy.
• Pharisees vs. Sadducees: These mainstream groups also vied for influence, representing differing interpretations of Jewish law and tradition.
Eschatological Response to Oppression
The scrolls’ apocalyptic tone can be seen as a response to political turmoil. The community envisioned divine intervention to overthrow oppressive regimes and restore a righteous order.
Rome’s Role
While Rome is not explicitly mentioned in the scrolls, the sectarian texts' apocalyptic rhetoric likely reflects the broader discontent with Roman rule. The Qumran community may have seen themselves as a remnant of faithful Jews awaiting God’s deliverance.
The Legacy of the Scrolls in Modern Times
Impact on Judaism
The scrolls have provided invaluable insights into the diversity of Jewish thought and practice during the Second Temple Period. They have deepened modern understanding of:
• Halakhic Development: Variations in legal interpretations found in the scrolls offer a glimpse into the evolution of Jewish law.
• Early Jewish Mysticism: Texts like the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice reflect mystical traditions that later influenced Kabbalah.
Influence on Christianity
For Christianity, the scrolls illuminate the Jewish context of the New Testament. They highlight:
• The theological environment from which early Christian ideas emerged.
• The continuity and divergence between Jewish apocalypticism and Christian eschatology.
Academic Contributions
The scrolls have reshaped biblical scholarship by:
1. Expanding the Canon: Works like 1 Enoch and Jubilees, once considered fringe, are now recognized as central to Second Temple Judaism.
2. Refining Textual Criticism: Variants in the biblical manuscripts found at Qumran have informed modern translations of the Hebrew Bible.
3. Understanding Sectarianism: The texts offer a detailed case study of how religious sects form and function.
Cultural and Popular Interest
The Dead Sea Scrolls have captured the public imagination, inspiring numerous books, documentaries, and even conspiracy theories. Their story embodies the intersection of archaeology, theology, and history.
Ethical and Political Issues
The scrolls have been at the center of debates over cultural heritage and ownership:
• Israeli-Palestinian Disputes: Both sides claim the scrolls as part of their cultural patrimony.
• Access and Preservation: Efforts to balance open access with careful preservation continue to evolve.
Dead Sea Scrolls - Timeline
A dated timeline covering the history of the Dead Sea Scrolls.
1946–1947 - A Bedouin shepherd discovers the first scrolls in a cave near Qumran while searching for a lost goat.
1947–1956 - Systematic exploration of 11 Qumran caves leads to the recovery of over 900 manuscripts.
1950s–1960s - Early analysis and limited publication of the scrolls by a small group of scholars.
1991 - Full access to the Dead Sea Scrolls is granted to the global academic community, resolving prior gatekeeping controversies.
2000s - Technological advancements, including infrared imaging and digital reconstruction, provide clearer readings of damaged texts.
2012 - The Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library is launched, offering high-resolution scans to the public online.
Present Day - Continued research and preservation efforts focus on the scrolls, now housed in institutions like the Shrine of the Book in Jerusalem.
Introduction to the Deuterocanonical Books
The term "Deuterocanonical" (from the Greek "deutero," meaning "second," and "kanon," meaning "rule") refers to a set of books included in the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Old Testament canons but excluded from the Hebrew Bible and most Protestant Bibles. These texts are considered canonical by the Catholic Church but are regarded as "Apocrypha" by many Protestant traditions.
Historical Context
Origins and Composition
1. Hellenistic Influence: Most of these books were written during the Second Temple Period (circa 4th–1st centuries BCE), a time of significant interaction between Jewish and Hellenistic cultures following the conquests of Alexander the Great.
2. Languages: While many of the books were originally written in Hebrew or Aramaic, others, like the Wisdom of Solomon, were composed in Greek. Some Hebrew originals have been lost, with only Greek versions surviving.
3. Locations: These texts were likely produced in a variety of locations, including Judea and the Jewish diaspora in Egypt, especially in Alexandria.
Religious and Cultural Context
• These books reflect Jewish life under foreign rule, particularly under the Seleucid and Ptolemaic dynasties.
• They address themes of faithfulness to the Torah, divine justice, wisdom, and resistance to oppression.
Canonization and Early Usage
1. Septuagint Connection: The Deuterocanonical books were included in the Septuagint (LXX), the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures widely used in the Hellenistic Jewish and early Christian communities.
2. Early Christian Use: Early Church Fathers frequently cited these texts, treating them as Scripture. For example:
• Wisdom of Solomon is referenced in the writings of Clement of Rome.
• Sirach is quoted by Cyprian of Carthage.
3. Council of Rome (382 CE): The Deuterocanonical books were affirmed as part of the canon under Pope Damasus I.
4. Council of Carthage (397 CE): This council formally listed the Deuterocanonical books as part of the Old Testament canon.
Reformation and the Protestant View
1. Exclusion by Protestants: During the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century, reformers like Martin Luther excluded the Deuterocanonical books from the Old Testament canon, labeling them "Apocrypha." This decision was based on:
• The absence of these texts from the Hebrew Bible.
• A preference for texts that were recognized by Jewish authorities at the time.
2. Retention by Catholics: The Catholic Church reaffirmed the Deuterocanonical books as canonical at the Council of Trent (1546) in response to the Protestant Reformation.
Timeline of the Deuterocanonical Books
4th–1st Century BCE - The Deuterocanonical books are written during the Second Temple Period, reflecting Jewish life under Hellenistic influence.
3rd–2nd Century BCE - These books are included in the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures.
1st–4th Century CE - Early Church Fathers, including Clement of Rome and Cyprian of Carthage, cite the Deuterocanonical books as Scripture.
382 CE - The Council of Rome, under Pope Damasus I, affirms the Deuterocanonical books as part of the Christian canon.
397 CE - The Council of Carthage formally includes the Deuterocanonical books in the Old Testament canon.
16th Century CE - Protestant Reformers exclude the Deuterocanonical books from their Old Testament, labeling them "Apocrypha."
1546 CE - The Council of Trent reaffirms the Deuterocanonical books as canonical in response to the Protestant Reformation.
Introduction to the Eastern Orthodox Apocrypha
The Eastern Orthodox Church includes several texts in its canon that are absent from the Catholic canon and most Protestant Bibles. These texts are sometimes referred to as Anagignoskomena (Greek for "worthy to be read") rather than Apocrypha, reflecting their use in liturgy and theological tradition. These books are drawn from the Septuagint (LXX) and are seen as part of the sacred scripture in Orthodox Christianity.
Historical Context
Septuagint as the Foundation
The Septuagint serves as the basis for the Orthodox Old Testament. Produced in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE in Alexandria, the Septuagint was the first major translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek. It included additional books and expanded versions of texts that were not part of the Hebrew Bible.
Divergence from the Jewish and Western Canons
1. Jewish Canon Formation: After the destruction of the Second Temple (70 CE), Jewish authorities standardized their canon, excluding many texts preserved in the Septuagint.
2. Western Church Development: While the Catholic Church adopted most of the Septuagint's Deuterocanonical books, it did not include others, such as 1 Esdras and 3 Maccabees, in its canon.
3. Orthodox Tradition: The Eastern Orthodox Church retained a broader canon, reflecting the diversity of texts revered in early Christian communities.
Canonization and Use
Early Church and the Septuagint
The early Christian Church, particularly in the Greek-speaking East, relied on the Septuagint as its primary scripture. This included texts that were later excluded from the Hebrew and Western canons.
Councils and Recognition
1. Synod of Jerusalem (1672): Officially confirmed the inclusion of these books in the Orthodox canon.
2. Diversity Within Orthodoxy: Different Orthodox traditions (e.g., Greek, Russian, Ethiopian) may include slightly varying lists of canonical texts.
Liturgical and Theological Importance
1. Liturgical Use: Many of these texts are read during Orthodox services, particularly during Great Lent and feast days.
2. Theological Contributions: These texts reinforce key Orthodox themes, such as:
• The centrality of repentance (Prayer of Manasseh).
• God’s providence and protection (3 Maccabees).
• The interplay of reason, faith, and virtue (4 Maccabees).
Contemporary Relevance
1. Orthodox Theology and Worship: These texts remain integral to Orthodox Christian practice and theology, shaping prayers, hymns, and sermons.
2. Interfaith Dialogue: Understanding the Orthodox canon enriches discussions between Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox traditions.
3. Scholarly Interest: Scholars value these texts for their insights into Second Temple Judaism, early Christian thought, and the development of the biblical canon.
Timeline of the Eastern Orthodox Apocrypha
3rd–2nd Century BCE - The Septuagint is produced in Alexandria, including texts later recognized as part of the Eastern Orthodox Apocrypha.
1st Century CE - Early Christian communities adopt the Septuagint, including texts not found in the Hebrew Bible.
2nd–4th Century CE - Texts like 1 Esdras, 3 Maccabees, and Psalm 151 are preserved and used in liturgical practices in Eastern Christian communities.
1672 CE - The Synod of Jerusalem officially confirms the inclusion of the broader Eastern Orthodox canon, including texts like the Prayer of Manasseh and 4 Maccabees.
Present Day - The Eastern Orthodox Apocrypha remains integral to Orthodox theology and worship, with variations in canon across different traditions (e.g., Greek, Russian, Ethiopian Orthodox).
Introduction to the Pseudepigrapha
The term Pseudepigrapha (from the Greek "pseudes," meaning "false," and "epigraphe," meaning "ascription") refers to a broad collection of ancient Jewish and Christian writings falsely attributed to prominent biblical figures such as Enoch, Adam, Moses, and others. These texts were never included in the Jewish or Christian canonical scriptures but were widely read and influential in shaping theological and eschatological ideas.
Defining Characteristics
1. Authorship: Most pseudepigraphal works claim to be written by biblical patriarchs or prophets, lending them authority. For example, the Book of Enoch is attributed to Enoch, a pre-flood figure from Genesis.
2. Themes: Common themes include apocalyptic visions, angelology, eschatology, moral exhortations, and elaborations on biblical narratives.
3. Language and Context: These texts were written in Hebrew, Aramaic, or Greek, often by Jewish or early Christian communities during the Second Temple Period (circa 4th century BCE–1st century CE).
Historical Context
Second Temple Judaism
The Pseudepigrapha emerged during a period of religious and political upheaval in Jewish history. These texts reflect:
• Exilic and Post-Exilic Challenges: Themes of restoration and divine justice in response to foreign domination.
• Hellenistic Influence: The blending of Jewish theology with Greek philosophical and cosmological ideas.
• Sectarian Diversity: Varied perspectives on Jewish law, messianism, and eschatology, reflecting the theological diversity of the era.
Early Christianity
• Many Pseudepigrapha, particularly apocalyptic texts like 1 Enoch, heavily influenced early Christian thought, including the New Testament.
• The Epistle of Jude explicitly quotes 1 Enoch, and the apocalyptic imagery in Revelation parallels themes found in pseudepigraphal works.
Themes and Significance
Apocalyptic Literature
1. Cosmic Visions: Many Pseudepigrapha provide vivid descriptions of heaven, hell, angels, demons, and divine judgment.
• Example: The Book of the Watchers (1 Enoch) details the fall of the rebellious angels and their punishment.
2. Messianism: Texts like 4 Ezra explore messianic expectations, including a figure who will bring justice and restore Israel.
Expanded Biblical Narratives
1. Elaboration on Genesis: Works like the Book of Jubilees and the Life of Adam and Eve provide expanded accounts of creation, the fall, and early human history.
2. Noah and the Flood: The Book of the Giants and the Genesis Apocryphon from Qumran elaborate on the events leading up to the flood.
Ethics and Wisdom
1. Moral Teachings: The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs provide ethical exhortations attributed to the patriarchs of Israel.
2. Divine Justice: These texts often emphasize God’s justice and the ultimate triumph of good over evil.
Transmission and Preservation
Original Languages
Many pseudepigraphal works were originally composed in Hebrew or Aramaic. However, most survive only in Greek, Ethiopic, or Latin translations, reflecting their transmission through diverse religious and cultural communities.
Rediscovery and Study
1. Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls: The discovery of texts like the Book of Enoch, the Book of the Giants, and the Genesis Apocryphon in the Qumran caves significantly advanced the study of the Pseudepigrapha.
2. Ethiopian Christianity: The complete Book of Enoch survived only in Ge'ez, the liturgical language of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.
3. Medieval Manuscripts: Many pseudepigraphal works were preserved in Christian monastic libraries.
Canonical Status
Jewish Tradition
The Pseudepigrapha were excluded from the Hebrew Bible during the canonization process, likely due to their apocalyptic nature and sectarian origins.
Christian Tradition
1. Eastern Orthodox and Ethiopian Churches: Some Pseudepigrapha, like 1 Enoch and Jubilees, are considered canonical by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church.
2. Western Christianity: The Pseudepigrapha were excluded from the Catholic canon, though they influenced early Christian thought.
Controversies and Challenges
1. Authorship: The pseudonymous nature of these texts raises questions about their authenticity and authority.
2. Theological Interpretations: Their esoteric themes and emphasis on angelology and apocalypticism have sparked debates about their relevance to mainstream Jewish and Christian theology.
3. Diversity: The broad range of texts under the Pseudepigrapha umbrella makes it challenging to define them as a cohesive collection.
Modern Relevance
Influence on Biblical Studies
The Pseudepigrapha illuminate the theological and cultural milieu of Second Temple Judaism, providing context for the development of Jewish and Christian traditions.
Interfaith Dialogue
These texts highlight the shared heritage of Judaism and Christianity, fostering understanding and collaboration between the two faiths.
Pop Culture
Themes from the Pseudepigrapha, particularly angelic and apocalyptic imagery, continue to inspire literature, film, and art.
Introduction to the Qumran Texts
The Qumran Texts, often referred to collectively as the Dead Sea Scrolls, are a diverse collection of Jewish writings discovered between 1946 and 1956 in the caves near the archaeological site of Qumran, adjacent to the Dead Sea. These texts provide unparalleled insights into the religious, social, and political life of Second Temple Judaism (circa 3rd century BCE to 1st century CE).
Timeline of the Pseudepigrapha
4th–1st Century BCE - Many Pseudepigraphal texts, such as 1 Enoch and Jubilees, are composed during the Second Temple Period, reflecting Jewish theological and eschatological ideas.
3rd–2nd Century BCE - Texts like the Book of Jubilees are included in the religious traditions of some Jewish sects, particularly in Qumran communities.
1st Century CE - Early Christians, including New Testament authors, are influenced by Pseudepigraphal works. For example, Jude quotes 1 Enoch.
4th Century CE - Some Pseudepigraphal texts are preserved by Ethiopian Christians, who include books like 1 Enoch and Jubilees in their canon.
1946–1956 CE - Discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls brings renewed attention to Pseudepigraphal texts, including fragments of the Book of Enoch and the Genesis Apocryphon.
Present Day - Pseudepigraphal texts continue to be studied for their insights into Second Temple Judaism, early Christianity, and the development of apocalyptic and theological traditions.
Classification of the Qumran Texts
The Qumran manuscripts are typically categorized into the following groups:
1. Biblical Texts
• Copies of nearly all the books of the Hebrew Bible (except Esther).
• Often, these versions display textual variants from the later Masoretic Text.
2. Apocryphal and Pseudepigraphal Works
• Texts not included in the Hebrew Bible but popular during Second Temple Judaism, such as 1 Enoch, Jubilees, and Tobit.
3. Sectarian Texts
• Writings specific to the Qumran community, reflecting their beliefs, rules, and eschatological expectations, such as:
• Community Rule
• War Scroll
• Thanksgiving Hymns
4. Parabiblical Texts
• Expansions, commentaries, or adaptations of biblical narratives, such as:
• Genesis Apocryphon
• Temple Scroll
5. Liturgical Texts
• Hymns, prayers, and psalms used in communal worship, including the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice.
6. Prophetic and Apocalyptic Texts
• Visions of the end times and divine judgment, such as the Apocalypse of Zephaniah.
Historical Context
Second Temple Period
The Qumran Texts were written during a period of great upheaval in Jewish history, including:
• Hellenistic Rule: The influence of Greek culture following Alexander the Great's conquests.
• Maccabean Revolt: A Jewish uprising against Hellenistic oppression, detailed in texts like 1 Maccabees and echoed in sectarian writings.
• Roman Occupation: The arrival of Roman power in Judea, culminating in the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE.
Sectarianism
The texts reflect the diversity of Jewish thought at the time. The Qumran sect, often identified with the Essenes, separated from mainstream Judaism over disputes about:
• Temple Practices: They viewed the Jerusalem priesthood as corrupt.
• Interpretation of the Law: They adhered to stricter interpretations of the Torah.
Themes and Significance
Biblical Interpretation
• The Qumran community saw itself as the true remnant of Israel, with a special mission to preserve and interpret the Torah.
• Pesharim (Commentaries): These writings apply biblical prophecies to the sect's contemporary situation, often identifying their opponents as the "Wicked Priest" or "Sons of Darkness."
Eschatology and Apocalypticism
• The texts are steeped in apocalyptic expectations, envisioning a final battle between the "Sons of Light" (the righteous) and the "Sons of Darkness" (their enemies).
• This apocalyptic worldview influenced early Christian eschatology.
Community and Purity
• The Community Rule outlines strict communal practices, including shared property, ritual purity, and obedience to a hierarchical structure.
• The sect believed they were preparing for the end times by living in accordance with divine law.
Divine Judgment and Angels
• The texts frequently describe divine judgment, angelic hierarchies, and cosmic battles, as seen in works like the War Scroll and Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice.
Discovery and Preservation
Discovery
• The scrolls were discovered in 11 caves near Qumran, starting with Cave 1 in 1946. Each cave yielded fragments of varying completeness, ranging from nearly intact scrolls to tiny pieces.
Preservation Challenges
• Many scrolls were damaged by exposure to air and mishandling after their discovery. Fragmentation and decay have made reconstruction painstaking.
Modern Preservation Efforts
• Techniques like infrared imaging and digital reconstruction have allowed scholars to piece together fragments and read faded texts.
• Climate-controlled environments ensure the physical preservation of the scrolls.
Controversies
Authorship
• While the Qumran sect is the leading candidate for the authorship of these texts, some scholars suggest alternative theories, such as Sadducean or Pharisaic origins.
Publication Delays
• For decades, access to the scrolls was restricted to a small group of scholars, leading to accusations of gatekeeping. The full corpus was not widely available until the 1990s.
Implications for Canon Formation
• The Qumran Texts reveal the fluidity of the biblical canon during the Second Temple Period, challenging traditional views of how the Hebrew Bible was compiled.
Impact on Biblical Studies
1. Textual Variants: The scrolls illuminate differences between the Masoretic Text, the Septuagint, and other ancient versions of the Hebrew Bible.
2. Second Temple Judaism: They provide unparalleled insights into the diversity of Jewish thought, practice, and sectarianism.
3. Early Christianity: Many themes in the Qumran Texts—such as messianism, apocalypticism, and communal living—resonate with early Christian beliefs.
Contemporary Significance
1. Religious Studies: The Qumran Texts remain vital for understanding Jewish and Christian origins.
2. Interdisciplinary Research: They are studied not only by theologians but also by historians, linguists, and archaeologists.
3. Public Interest: The story of their discovery and the insights they provide continue to captivate the public imagination.
Timeline of the Pseudepigrapha
4th–1st Century BCE - Many Pseudepigraphal texts, such as 1 Enoch and Jubilees, are composed during the Second Temple Period, reflecting Jewish theological and eschatological ideas.
3rd–2nd Century BCE - Texts like the Book of Jubilees are included in the religious traditions of some Jewish sects, particularly in Qumran communities.
1st Century CE - Early Christians, including New Testament authors, are influenced by Pseudepigraphal works. For example, Jude quotes 1 Enoch.
4th Century CE - Some Pseudepigraphal texts are preserved by Ethiopian Christians, who include books like 1 Enoch and Jubilees in their canon.
1946–1956 CE - Discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls brings renewed attention to Pseudepigraphal texts, including fragments of the Book of Enoch and the Genesis Apocryphon.
Present Day - Pseudepigraphal texts continue to be studied for their insights into Second Temple Judaism, early Christianity, and the development of apocalyptic and theological traditions.
Comprehensive Overview of Canon Formation, Textual Transmission, and Theological Influence
The formation of the biblical canon reveals diverse processes across Jewish, Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant traditions. The Jewish canon was largely standardized by the 2nd century CE, focusing on texts written in Hebrew or Aramaic and excluding others, such as 1 Enoch and Jubilees, which were popular among certain Jewish sects. While the Council of Jamnia (90 CE) is traditionally credited with confirming the Hebrew Bible canon, this remains a debated claim. Meanwhile, the Septuagint, a Greek translation of Hebrew Scriptures created in the 3rd–2nd centuries BCE, included additional works like Tobit and Judith, influencing early Christians who adopted its broader collection. Catholic councils, such as those at Hippo (393 CE) and Carthage (397 CE), affirmed the inclusion of the Deuterocanonical books, a decision reinforced by the Council of Trent (1546) in response to the Protestant Reformation. Protestant reformers excluded these texts, aligning their Old Testament with the Jewish canon. The Eastern Orthodox Church, retaining the Septuagint tradition, includes texts not found in the Catholic canon, such as 3 Maccabees and the Prayer of Manasseh. Modern scholarship highlights the fluidity of canonization, with Apocryphal and Pseudepigraphal works like 1 Enoch providing insights into Second Temple Judaism and early Christian theology.
Role of the Apocrypha in Liturgy and Theological Reflection
The Apocrypha plays a significant role in Jewish and Christian liturgical practices. In Judaism, 1 Maccabees underpins the historical narrative of Hanukkah, while texts like the Prayer of Manasseh inspire repentance rituals such as Tashlich. Catholic liturgy integrates books like Tobit, Judith, and Sirach into the Liturgy of the Hours and Mass readings, while Wisdom of Solomon and Baruch are prominent in Advent and funeral services. Orthodox traditions incorporate texts such as Psalm 151 and the Odes into worship, with the Prayer of Manasseh featuring during Lent. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church uniquely regards 1 Enoch and Jubilees as canonical, using them in liturgical hymns and prayers. These texts contribute theological depth, particularly in themes like divine providence, eschatology, and communal piety, fostering both individual and collective spiritual reflection.
Comparative Insights Between Apocryphal and Canonical Texts
Apocryphal texts often expand on or reinterpret canonical narratives. Additions to Esther and Daniel include prayers and moral teachings that emphasize divine intervention and faith under persecution. Wisdom literature like Wisdom of Solomon incorporates Hellenistic philosophy, contrasting with the practical focus of Proverbs. Similarly, Sirach offers a Torah-centric ethical perspective, diverging from the existential reflections of Ecclesiastes. Apocalyptic works such as 1 Enoch and 4 Ezra explore cosmic struggles and human suffering with themes that parallel and diverge from Revelation and Daniel, respectively. These texts enrich our understanding of Second Temple Judaism and early Christianity, highlighting diverse theological priorities and cultural influences.
Scribal Practices and Textual Transmission
The meticulous practices of ancient scribes ensured the preservation of sacred texts, despite inevitable challenges. Materials like papyrus and parchment provided the medium, with ink and reed pens as primary tools. Scrolls were the dominant format during the Second Temple Period, later replaced by codices. Scribes trained in precise copying techniques used guidelines, counted letters and words, and annotated margins to ensure accuracy. However, errors such as omissions and misreadings occurred, and textual variants reveal interpretative and theological shifts. The Dead Sea Scrolls exemplify this complexity, showcasing differences between the Masoretic Text, the Septuagint, and other ancient versions. Modern technologies like infrared imaging and digital reconstruction have advanced the study of these manuscripts, shedding light on their transmission and preservation.
Apocalyptic Literature Across Cultures
Apocalyptic literature, with its vivid imagery of cosmic battles and divine judgment, transcends cultural boundaries. Jewish apocalypticism, evident in texts like Daniel and 1 Enoch, focuses on messianic figures and the vindication of the righteous during oppression. Early Christian apocalypticism, as seen in Revelation, emphasizes the Second Coming and eternal restoration. Zoroastrian apocalyptic thought, featuring dualistic cosmic struggles, may have influenced Jewish traditions during the Persian period. Greco-Roman works like the Sibylline Oracles and Hindu-Buddhist traditions, such as the Kalki Purana, also reflect eschatological concerns, with themes of cycles, renewal, and divine intervention. Across traditions, these narratives address universal questions about justice, morality, and cosmic order, inspiring modern literature and media.
Influence on Modern Thought and Culture
The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha have profoundly shaped contemporary theology, literature, and popular culture. Theological discussions draw on concepts of divine justice and immortality from texts like Wisdom of Solomon. Literary works, including Paradise Lost and The Silmarillion, reflect themes from 1 Enoch and apocalyptic texts. Films like The Matrix and TV shows like Supernatural borrow angelic and eschatological motifs. The ethical teachings of Sirach and Wisdom continue to influence philosophical discussions on morality and theodicy. Meanwhile, Pseudepigraphal texts like the Book of the Watchers fuel modern fascination with angelology and fringe theories about ancient aliens, highlighting their enduring cultural resonance.
Historical Controversies and Debates
The Apocrypha has been a subject of theological and cultural debate for centuries. Jewish exclusion of certain texts, aligned with Pharisaic theology, contrasted with early Christian inclusion via the Septuagint. Martin Luther’s relegation of the Deuterocanonical books as "Apocrypha" sparked Protestant-Catholic divisions, leading to the Council of Trent’s reaffirmation of these texts. Scholarly debates continue over their pseudonymous authorship, historical accuracy, and theological soundness. Modern controversies include interfaith challenges, public misconceptions about “forbidden books,” and disputes over the Dead Sea Scrolls' ownership. Despite these debates, the Apocrypha remains vital for understanding the development of Jewish and Christian traditions.
Ethical and Theological Themes
Apocryphal, Pseudepigraphal, and Qumran texts explore profound ethical and theological themes. Divine justice is a central concern, with texts like 4 Ezra grappling with human suffering and God’s sovereignty. Free will and predestination are juxtaposed in works like Sirach and the War Scroll, emphasizing human responsibility and divine control. Narratives of suffering and martyrdom, as in 2 Maccabees, highlight faith and communal solidarity under persecution. Angelology and demonology expand on cosmic struggles between good and evil, while covenantal texts like Jubilees underscore the importance of Torah observance. Wisdom literature, such as Sirach and Wisdom of Solomon, portrays wisdom as a divine gift guiding ethical living. These texts collectively address timeless questions of morality, eschatology, and cosmic renewal, enriching religious and philosophical discourse.
Eschatology and Cosmic Renewal
The theme of eschatology—the study of the end times—features prominently in Apocryphal, Pseudepigraphal, and Qumran texts, offering a vision of ultimate justice and restoration. Apocalyptic works like 1 Enoch and 4 Ezra portray divine judgment, where the wicked are punished, and the righteous are rewarded. These texts often call for immediate repentance and ethical living in anticipation of impending divine intervention. Communal preparation, as emphasized in the Qumran Community Rule, reflects a collective effort to uphold purity and readiness for the end times.
The concept of cosmic renewal appears in writings like the War Scroll and 2 Baruch, envisioning the restoration of creation to its original state of harmony and righteousness. The role of a messianic figure is central in many of these works, often depicted as a divine agent who will usher in this new era. Wisdom literature, such as Wisdom of Solomon, connects eschatology with the pursuit of divine wisdom, suggesting that those who align their lives with God's wisdom will share in the blessings of the new creation. These themes of cosmic renewal and eschatological hope resonate deeply with both ancient and modern audiences, providing a framework for understanding divine justice and human destiny.
Modern Relevance and Legacy
The legacy of the Apocryphal, Pseudepigraphal, and Qumran texts extends far beyond their original contexts, influencing theology, culture, and scholarly inquiry. Their ethical teachings and theological reflections continue to inspire religious practices, philosophical debates, and artistic expressions. In theology, they provide crucial insights into the diversity of Second Temple Judaism and the formative years of Christianity, shaping discussions on topics such as angelology, eschatology, and the development of biblical canon.
In modern culture, these texts have fueled creativity in literature, film, and art, often serving as a rich source of symbolism and narrative inspiration. The apocalyptic imagery of these writings informs contemporary discussions about environmental crises, social justice, and the human condition, reflecting the timeless relevance of their themes.
Scholarly interest in these texts remains robust, with advancements in technology uncovering new details and interpretations. Digital archives, such as those for the Dead Sea Scrolls, have democratized access, allowing for global engagement with these ancient works. As bridges between the sacred and the historical, these texts offer enduring lessons on faith, resilience, and the quest for meaning, affirming their place in the ongoing dialogue between past and present.
The Book of Tobit
Entry: The Book of Tobit
Category/Type: Catholic Apocrypha (Deuterocanonical)
Status: Public Domain
Title: The Book of Tobit
Date and Origin:
• Estimated Date: Circa 200–100 BCE.
• Language: Originally composed in Hebrew or Aramaic; surviving manuscripts are in Greek, with fragments found in Hebrew and Aramaic among the Dead Sea Scrolls.
• Geographical Context: Likely written by a Jewish community in Mesopotamia or Judea during the Hellenistic period.
Historical Context:
The Book of Tobit reflects the life of Jewish people living in the diaspora, particularly under foreign rule. It is set during the Assyrian exile (circa 8th century BCE) but was composed much later. The book portrays a devout Jewish family striving to maintain their religious identity while living under non-Jewish rule.
The inclusion of angelic intervention (Raphael), references to burial rites, and themes of divine providence reflect evolving Jewish theology during the Second Temple period. This text was included in the Septuagint (the Greek translation of Hebrew scriptures) and accepted as canonical by Catholic and Orthodox traditions but excluded from the Jewish Tanakh and Protestant Bible.
Content Summary:
1. Tobit’s Piety and Suffering:
Tobit, a devout Israelite in Nineveh, practices acts of charity and buries the dead, risking persecution. He becomes blind due to a freak accident involving bird droppings and prays for death.
2. Sarah’s Torment:
In another city (Ecbatana), Sarah is plagued by the demon Asmodeus, who kills her seven successive husbands on their wedding nights. She, too, prays for deliverance.
3. Divine Intervention:
God hears the prayers of Tobit and Sarah, sending the angel Raphael, disguised as a human, to assist them.
4. Tobias’s Journey:
Tobit’s son, Tobias, embarks on a journey to recover a family debt in Media. Along the way, Raphael guides him and teaches him to use the heart, liver, and gall of a fish to heal and exorcise demons.
5. Sarah’s Marriage and Healing:
Tobias marries Sarah, following Raphael’s instructions to drive away the demon Asmodeus using the fish’s liver and heart.
6. Restoration of Tobit:
Tobias returns home with Sarah and uses the fish’s gall to heal Tobit’s blindness.
7. Praise and Farewell:
Tobit praises God for His mercy and instructs his family to remain faithful. Raphael reveals his identity as an angel sent by God.
Significance:
The Book of Tobit exemplifies themes of divine providence, faith, and family loyalty. Its emphasis on prayer, marriage, and charity highlights practical Jewish ethics and spirituality. The story also introduces angelic intervention and the battle against demonic forces, making it influential in both Jewish and Christian thought.
For Christians, the book is a source of inspiration about trusting God’s plan, even in hardship. It also provides insights into Second Temple Judaism and its understanding of angels, demons, and human suffering.
Key Verses:
• “Do that which is good, and no evil shall touch you.” (Tobit 4:6)
• “Blessed is God who lives forever, because His kingdom endures throughout all generations.” (Tobit 13:1)
References or Cross-Links:
• The demon Asmodeus also appears in later Jewish folklore.
• Raphael’s role as a healing angel ties to themes in the Book of Daniel (where Michael and Gabriel are named).
• Comparable themes of divine providence are seen in Esther and Job.
Reason for Omission:
Tobit was excluded from the Jewish canon because it was not part of the Hebrew text tradition (it survives mainly in Greek and Aramaic).
• Its inclusion of angelic intervention (Raphael) and elements of folklore (e.g., the use of fish organs to ward off demons) likely caused skepticism about its theological reliability.
• Protestant reformers omitted Tobit during the Reformation because they considered it non-canonical due to its absence from the Hebrew Bible and its perceived lack of doctrinal significance.
The Book of Tobit
1:1 The book of the words of Tobit, son of Tobiel, the son of Ananiel, the son of Aduel, the son of Gabael, of the seed of Asael, of the tribe of Nephthali;
1:2 Who in the time of Enemessar king of the Assyrians was led captive out of Thisbe, which is at the right hand of that city, which is called properly Nephthali in Galilee above Aser.
1:3 I Tobit have walked all the days of my life in the ways of truth and justice, and I did many almsdeeds to my brethren, and my nation, who came with me to Nineve, into the land of the Assyrians.
1:4 And when I was in mine own country, in the land of Israel being but young, all the tribe of Nephthali my father fell from the house of Jerusalem, which was chosen out of all the tribes of Israel, that all the tribes should sacrifice there, where the temple of the habitation of the most High was consecrated and built for all ages.
1:5 Now all the tribes which together revolted, and the house of my father Nephthali, sacrificed unto the heifer Baal.
1:6 But I alone went often to Jerusalem at the feasts, as it was ordained unto all the people of Israel by an everlasting decree, having the firstfruits and tenths of increase, with that which was first shorn; and them gave I at the altar to the priests the children of Aaron.
1:7 The first tenth part of all increase I gave to the sons of Aaron, who ministered at Jerusalem: another tenth part I sold away, and went, and spent it every year at Jerusalem:
1:8 And the third I gave unto them to whom it was meet, as Debora my father’s mother had commanded me, because I was left an orphan by my father.
1:9 Furthermore, when I was come to the age of a man, I married Anna of mine own kindred, and of her I begat Tobias.
1:10 And when we were carried away captives to Nineve, all my brethren and those that were of my kindred did eat of the bread of the Gentiles.
1:11 But I kept myself from eating;
1:12 Because I remembered God with all my heart.
1:13 And the most High gave me grace and favour before Enemessar, so that I was his purveyor.
1:14 And I went into Media, and left in trust with Gabael, the brother of Gabrias, at Rages a city of Media ten talents of silver.
1:15 Now when Enemessar was dead, Sennacherib his son reigned in his stead; whose estate was troubled, that I could not go into Media.
1:16 And in the time of Enemessar I gave many alms to my brethren, and gave my bread to the hungry,
1:17 And my clothes to the naked: and if I saw any of my nation dead, or cast about the walls of Nineve, I buried him.
1:18 And if the king Sennacherib had slain any, when he was come, and fled from Judea, I buried them privily; for in his wrath he killed many; but the bodies were not found, when they were sought for of the king.
1:19 And when one of the Ninevites went and complained of me to the king, that I buried them, and hid myself; understanding that I was sought for to be put to death, I withdrew myself for fear.
1:20 Then all my goods were forcibly taken away, neither was there any thing left me, beside my wife Anna and my son Tobias.
1:21 And there passed not five and fifty days, before two of his sons killed him, and they fled into the mountains of Ararath; and Sarchedonus his son reigned in his stead; who appointed over his father’s accounts, and over all his affairs, Achiacharus my brother Anael’s son.
1:22 And Achiacharus intreating for me, I returned to Nineve. Now Achiacharus was cupbearer, and keeper of the signet, and steward, and overseer of the accounts: and Sarchedonus appointed him next unto him: and he was my brother’s son.
2:1 Now when I was come home again, and my wife Anna was restored unto me, with my son Tobias, in the feast of Pentecost, which is the holy feast of the seven weeks, there was a good dinner prepared me, in the which I sat down to eat.
2:2 And when I saw abundance of meat, I said to my son, Go and bring what poor man soever thou shalt find out of our brethren, who is mindful of the Lord; and, lo, I tarry for thee.
2:3 But he came again, and said, Father, one of our nation is strangled, and is cast out in the marketplace.
2:4 Then before I had tasted of any meat, I started up, and took him up into a room until the going down of the sun.
2:5 Then I returned, and washed myself, and ate my meat in heaviness,
2:6 Remembering that prophecy of Amos, as he said, Your feasts shall be turned into mourning, and all your mirth into lamentation.
2:7 Therefore I wept: and after the going down of the sun I went and made a grave, and buried him.
2:8 But my neighbours mocked me, and said, This man is not yet afraid to be put to death for this matter: who fled away; and yet, lo, he burieth the dead again.
2:9 The same night also I returned from the burial, and slept by the wall of my courtyard, being polluted and my face was uncovered:
2:10 And I knew not that there were sparrows in the wall, and mine eyes being open, the sparrows muted warm dung into mine eyes, and a whiteness came in mine eyes: and I went to the physicians, but they helped me not: moreover Achiacharus did nourish me, until I went into Elymais.
2:11 And my wife Anna did take women’s works to do.
2:12 And when she had sent them home to the owners, they paid her wages, and gave her also besides a kid.
2:13 And when it was in my house, and began to cry, I said unto her, From whence is this kid? is it not stolen? render it to the owners; for it is not lawful to eat any thing that is stolen.
2:14 But she replied upon me, It was given for a gift more than the wages. Howbeit I did not believe her, but bade her render it to the owners: and I was abashed at her. But she replied upon me, Where are thine alms and thy righteous deeds? behold, thou and all thy works are known.
3:1 Then I being grieved did weep, and in my sorrow prayed, saying,
3:2 O Lord, thou art just, and all thy works and all thy ways are mercy and truth, and thou judgest truly and justly for ever.
3:3 Remember me, and look on me, punish me not for my sins and ignorances, and the sins of my fathers, who have sinned before thee:
3:4 For they obeyed not thy commandments: wherefore thou hast delivered us for a spoil, and unto captivity, and unto death, and for a proverb of reproach to all the nations among whom we are dispersed.
3:5 And now thy judgments are many and true: deal with me according to my sins and my fathers’: because we have not kept thy commandments, neither have walked in truth before thee.
3:6 Now therefore deal with me as seemeth best unto thee, and command my spirit to be taken from me, that I may be dissolved, and become earth: for it is profitable for me to die rather than to live, because I have heard false reproaches, and have much sorrow: command therefore that I may now be delivered out of this distress, and go into the everlasting place: turn not thy face away from me.
3:7 It came to pass the same day, that in Ecbatane a city of Media Sara the daughter of Raguel was also reproached by her father’s maids;
3:8 Because that she had been married to seven husbands, whom Asmodeus the evil spirit had killed, before they had lain with her. Dost thou not know, said they, that thou hast strangled thine husbands? thou hast had already seven husbands, neither wast thou named after any of them.
3:9 Wherefore dost thou beat us for them? if they be dead, go thy ways after them, let us never see of thee either son or daughter.
3:10 Whe she heard these things, she was very sorrowful, so that she thought to have strangled herself; and she said, I am the only daughter of my father, and if I do this, it shall be a reproach unto him, and I shall bring his old age with sorrow unto the grave.
3:11 Then she prayed toward the window, and said, Blessed art thou, O Lord my God, and thine holy and glorious name is blessed and honourable for ever: let all thy works praise thee for ever.
3:12 And now, O Lord, I set mine eyes and my face toward thee,
3:13 And say, Take me out of the earth, that I may hear no more the reproach.
3:14 Thou knowest, Lord, that I am pure from all sin with man,
3:15 And that I never polluted my name, nor the name of my father, in the land of my captivity: I am the only daughter of my father, neither hath he any child to be his heir, neither any near kinsman, nor any son of his alive, to whom I may keep myself for a wife: my seven husbands are already dead; and why should I live? but if it please not thee that I should die, command some regard to be had of me, and pity taken of me, that I hear no more reproach.
3:16 So the prayers of them both were heard before the majesty of the great God.
3:17 And Raphael was sent to heal them both, that is, to scale away the whiteness of Tobit’s eyes, and to give Sara the daughter of Raguel for a wife to Tobias the son of Tobit; and to bind Asmodeus the evil spirit; because she belonged to Tobias by right of inheritance. The selfsame time came Tobit home, and entered into his house, and Sara the daughter of Raguel came down from her upper chamber.
4:1 In that day Tobit remembered the money which he had committed to Gabael in Rages of Media,
4:2 And said with himself, I have wished for death; wherefore do I not call for my son Tobias that I may signify to him of the money before I die?
4:3 And when he had called him, he said, My son, when I am dead, bury me; and despise not thy mother, but honour her all the days of thy life, and do that which shall please her, and grieve her not.
4:4 Remember, my son, that she saw many dangers for thee, when thou wast in her womb: and when she is dead, bury her by me in one grave.
4:5 My son, be mindful of the Lord our God all thy days, and let not thy will be set to sin, or to transgress his commandments: do uprightly all thy life long, and follow not the ways of unrighteousness.
4:6 For if thou deal truly, thy doings shall prosperously succeed to thee, and to all them that live justly.
4:7 Give alms of thy substance; and when thou givest alms, let not thine eye be envious, neither turn thy face from any poor, and the face of God shall not be turned away from thee.
4:8 If thou hast abundance give alms accordingly: if thou have but a little, be not afraid to give according to that little:
4:9 For thou layest up a good treasure for thyself against the day of necessity.
4:10 Because that alms do deliver from death, and suffereth not to come into darkness.
4:11 For alms is a good gift unto all that give it in the sight of the most High.
4:12 Beware of all whoredom, my son, and chiefly take a wife of the seed of thy fathers, and take not a strange woman to wife, which is not of thy father’s tribe: for we are the children of the prophets, Noe, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob: remember, my son, that our fathers from the beginning, even that they all married wives of their own kindred, and were blessed in their children, and their seed shall inherit the land.
4:13 Now therefore, my son, love thy brethren, and despise not in thy heart thy brethren, the sons and daughters of thy people, in not taking a wife of them: for in pride is destruction and much trouble, and in lewdness is decay and great want: for lewdness is the mother of famine.
4:14 Let not the wages of any man, which hath wrought for thee, tarry with thee, but give him it out of hand: for if thou serve God, he will also repay thee: be circumspect my son, in all things thou doest, and be wise in all thy conversation.
4:15 Do that to no man which thou hatest: drink not wine to make thee drunken: neither let drunkenness go with thee in thy journey.
4:16 Give of thy bread to the hungry, and of thy garments to them that are naked; and according to thine abundance give alms: and let not thine eye be envious, when thou givest alms.
4:17 Pour out thy bread on the burial of the just, but give nothing to the wicked.
4:18 Ask counsel of all that are wise, and despise not any counsel that is profitable.
4:19 Bless the Lord thy God alway, and desire of him that thy ways may be directed, and that all thy paths and counsels may prosper: for every nation hath not counsel; but the Lord himself giveth all good things, and he humbleth whom he will, as he will; now therefore, my son, remember my commandments, neither let them be put out of thy mind.
4:20 And now I signify this to they that I committed ten talents to Gabael the son of Gabrias at Rages in Media.
4:21 And fear not, my son, that we are made poor: for thou hast much wealth, if thou fear God, and depart from all sin, and do that which is pleasing in his sight.
5:1 Tobias then answered and said, Father, I will do all things which thou hast commanded me:
5:2 But how can I receive the money, seeing I know him not?
5:3 Then he gave him the handwriting, and said unto him, Seek thee a man which may go with thee, whiles I yet live, and I will give him wages: and go and receive the money.
5:4 Therefore when he went to seek a man, he found Raphael that was an angel.
5:5 But he knew not; and he said unto him, Canst thou go with me to Rages? and knowest thou those places well?
5:6 To whom the angel said, I will go with thee, and I know the way well: for I have lodged with our brother Gabael.
5:7 Then Tobias said unto him, Tarry for me, till I tell my father.
5:8 Then he said unto him, Go and tarry not. So he went in and said to his father, Behold, I have found one which will go with me. Then he said, Call him unto me, that I may know of what tribe he is, and whether he be a trusty man to go with thee.
5:9 So he called him, and he came in, and they saluted one another.
5:10 Then Tobit said unto him, Brother, shew me of what tribe and family thou art.
5:11 To whom he said, Dost thou seek for a tribe or family, or an hired man to go with thy son? Then Tobit said unto him, I would know, brother, thy kindred and name.
5:12 Then he said, I am Azarias, the son of Ananias the great, and of thy brethren.
5:13 Then Tobit said, Thou art welcome, brother; be not now angry with me, because I have enquired to know thy tribe and thy family; for thou art my brother, of an honest and good stock: for I know Ananias and Jonathas, sons of that great Samaias, as we went together to Jerusalem to worship, and offered the firstborn, and the tenths of the fruits; and they were not seduced with the error of our brethren: my brother, thou art of a good stock.
5:14 But tell me, what wages shall I give thee? wilt thou a drachm a day, and things necessary, as to mine own son?
5:15 Yea, moreover, if ye return safe, I will add something to thy wages.
5:16 So they were well pleased. Then said he to Tobias, Prepare thyself for the journey, and God send you a good journey. And when his son had prepared all things for the journey, his father said, Go thou with this man, and God, which dwelleth in heaven, prosper your journey, and the angel of God keep you company. So they went forth both, and the young man’s dog with them.
5:17 But Anna his mother wept, and said to Tobit, Why hast thou sent away our son? is he not the staff of our hand, in going in and out before us?
5:18 Be not greedy to add money to money: but let it be as refuse in respect of our child.
5:19 For that which the Lord hath given us to live with doth suffice us.
5:20 Then said Tobit to her, Take no care, my sister; he shall return in safety, and thine eyes shall see him.
5:21 For the good angel will keep him company, and his journey shall be prosperous, and he shall return safe.
5:22 Then she made an end of weeping.
6:1 And as they went on their journey, they came in the evening to the river Tigris, and they lodged there.
6:2 And when the young man went down to wash himself, a fish leaped out of the river, and would have devoured him.
6:3 Then the angel said unto him, Take the fish. And the young man laid hold of the fish, and drew it to land.
6:4 To whom the angel said, Open the fish, and take the heart and the liver and the gall, and put them up safely.
6:5 So the young man did as the angel commanded him; and when they had roasted the fish, they did eat it: then they both went on their way, till they drew near to Ecbatane.
6:6 Then the young man said to the angel, Brother Azarias, to what use is the heart and the liver and the gal of the fish?
6:7 And he said unto him, Touching the heart and the liver, if a devil or an evil spirit trouble any, we must make a smoke thereof before the man or the woman, and the party shall be no more vexed.
6:8 As for the gall, it is good to anoint a man that hath whiteness in his eyes, and he shall be healed.
6:9 And when they were come near to Rages,
6:10 The angel said to the young man, Brother, to day we shall lodge with Raguel, who is thy cousin; he also hath one only daughter, named Sara; I will speak for her, that she may be given thee for a wife.
6:11 For to thee doth the right of her appertain, seeing thou only art of her kindred.
6:12 And the maid is fair and wise: now therefore hear me, and I will speak to her father; and when we return from Rages we will celebrate the marriage: for I know that Raguel cannot marry her to another according to the law of Moses, but he shall be guilty of death, because the right of inheritance doth rather appertain to thee than to any other.
6:13 Then the young man answered the angel, I have heard, brother Azarias that this maid hath been given to seven men, who all died in the marriage chamber.
6:14 And now I am the only son of my father, and I am afraid, lest if I go in unto her, I die, as the other before: for a wicked spirit loveth her, which hurteth no body, but those which come unto her; wherefore I also fear lest I die, and bring my father’s and my mother’s life because of me to the grave with sorrow: for they have no other son to bury them.
6:15 Then the angel said unto him, Dost thou not remember the precepts which thy father gave thee, that thou shouldest marry a wife of thine own kindred? wherefore hear me, O my brother; for she shall be given thee to wife; and make thou no reckoning of the evil spirit; for this same night shall she be given thee in marriage.
6:16 And when thou shalt come into the marriage chamber, thou shalt take the ashes of perfume, and shalt lay upon them some of the heart and liver of the fish, and shalt make a smoke with it:
6:17 And the devil shall smell it, and flee away, and never come again any more: but when thou shalt come to her, rise up both of you, and pray to God which is merciful, who will have pity on you, and save you: fear not, for she is appointed unto thee from the beginning; and thou shalt preserve her, and she shall go with thee. Moreover I suppose that she shall bear thee children. Now when Tobias had heard these things, he loved her, and his heart was effectually joined to her.
7:1 And when they were come to Ecbatane, they came to the house of Raguel, and Sara met them: and after they had saluted one another, she brought them into the house.
7:2 Then said Raguel to Edna his wife, How like is this young man to Tobit my cousin!
7:3 And Raguel asked them, From whence are ye, brethren? To whom they said, We are of the sons of Nephthalim, which are captives in Nineve.
7:4 Then he said to them, Do ye know Tobit our kinsman? And they said, We know him. Then said he, Is he in good health?
7:5 And they said, He is both alive, and in good health: and Tobias said, He is my father.
7:6 Then Raguel leaped up, and kissed him, and wept,
7:7 And blessed him, and said unto him, Thou art the son of an honest and good man. But when he had heard that Tobit was blind, he was sorrowful, and wept.
7:8 And likewise Edna his wife and Sara his daughter wept. Moreover they entertained them cheerfully; and after that they had killed a ram of the flock, they set store of meat on the table. Then said Tobias to Raphael, Brother Azarias, speak of those things of which thou didst talk in the way, and let this business be dispatched.
7:9 So he communicated the matter with Raguel: and Raguel said to Tobias, Eat and drink, and make merry:
7:10 For it is meet that thou shouldest marry my daughter: nevertheless I will declare unto thee the truth.
7:11 I have given my daughter in marriage to seven men, who died that night they came in unto her: nevertheless for the present be merry. But Tobias said, I will eat nothing here, till we agree and swear one to another.
7:12 Raguel said, Then take her from henceforth according to the manner, for thou art her cousin, and she is thine, and the merciful God give you good success in all things.
7:13 Then he called his daughter Sara, and she came to her father, and he took her by the hand, and gave her to be wife to Tobias, saying, Behold, take her after the law of Moses, and lead her away to thy father. And he blessed them;
7:14 And called Edna his wife, and took paper, and did write an instrument of covenants, and sealed it.
7:15 Then they began to eat.
7:16 After Raguel called his wife Edna, and said unto her, Sister, prepare another chamber, and bring her in thither.
7:17 Which when she had done as he had bidden her, she brought her thither: and she wept, and she received the tears of her daughter, and said unto her,
7:18 Be of good comfort, my daughter; the Lord of heaven and earth give thee joy for this thy sorrow: be of good comfort, my daughter.
8:1 And when they had supped, they brought Tobias in unto her.
8:2 And as he went, he remembered the words of Raphael, and took the ashes of the perfumes, and put the heart and the liver of the fish thereupon, and made a smoke therewith.
8:3 The which smell when the evil spirit had smelled, he fled into the utmost parts of Egypt, and the angel bound him.
8:4 And after that they were both shut in together, Tobias rose out of the bed, and said, Sister, arise, and let us pray that God would have pity on us.
8:5 Then began Tobias to say, Blessed art thou, O God of our fathers, and blessed is thy holy and glorious name for ever; let the heavens bless thee, and all thy creatures.
8:6 Thou madest Adam, and gavest him Eve his wife for an helper and stay: of them came mankind: thou hast said, It is not good that man should be alone; let us make unto him an aid like unto himself.
8:7 And now, O Lord, I take not this my sister for lust but uprightly: therefore mercifully ordain that we may become aged together.
8:8 And she said with him, Amen.
8:9 So they slept both that night. And Raguel arose, and went and made a grave,
8:10 Saying, I fear lest he also be dead.
8:11 But when Raguel was come into his house,
8:12 He said unto his wife Edna. Send one of the maids, and let her see whether he be alive: if he be not, that we may bury him, and no man know it.
8:13 So the maid opened the door, and went in, and found them both asleep,
8:14 And came forth, and told them that he was alive.
8:15 Then Raguel praised God, and said, O God, thou art worthy to be praised with all pure and holy praise; therefore let thy saints praise thee with all thy creatures; and let all thine angels and thine elect praise thee for ever.
8:16 Thou art to be praised, for thou hast made me joyful; and that is not come to me which I suspected; but thou hast dealt with us according to thy great mercy.
8:17 Thou art to be praised because thou hast had mercy of two that were the only begotten children of their fathers: grant them mercy, O Lord, and finish their life in health with joy and mercy.
8:18 Then Raguel bade his servants to fill the grave.
8:19 And he kept the wedding feast fourteen days.
8:20 For before the days of the marriage were finished, Raguel had said unto him by an oath, that he should not depart till the fourteen days of the marriage were expired;
8:21 And then he
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